Gilgamesh (2700 - 2800 B.C.)
Supreme over other kings, lordly in appearance,
he is the hero, born of Uruk, the goring wild bull.
He walks out in front, the leader,
and walks at the rear, trusted by his companions.
Mighty net, protector of his people,
raging flood-wave who destroys even walls of stone! (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet I)
His name was Gilgamesh, divine king of the town of Uruk in ancient Mesopotamia. The religious texts describe a beautiful, strong and brave leader who saved his people from outside threats by building a great wall. Gilgamesh became a symbol for man's attempt to immortalize himself through culture and civilization. According to Sumerian tradition he also restored the godlike balance after the great Flood as depicted in The Epic of Gilgamesh. His wisdom, power and insight into the secrets of divine knowledge left his people with an astounding legacy that through mythological accounts came to etch his name forever into the history of mankind.
Introduction
In what is today modern Iraq laid once one of the world's first civilizations. It was called Mesopotamia, in Greek meaning "between the rivers," referring to the two major rivers in the area; Tigris and Euphrates. Here, around 3000 B.C., lived a people of unknown origins called the Sumerians. An entire civilization made out of large city-states came to flourish under their turbulent reign. Their culture included a complete religious worldview, a rich production of literature, advanced science and mathematics, a monarchist rule and a comprehensive law system.
After being invaded by the Akkadians, a Semitic people from the Arabic peninsula, the Sumerians were conquered and the Mesopotamian area became a vast Akkadian empire, extending as far away as Lebanon. Although the Sumerians rose up against their enemies, they were subsequently defeated by more Semitic invasions and finally disappeared from history. Interestingly, the Semites chose to adopt the Sumerian culture instead of revolting against it or outlawing it.
Before this, in the town of Uruk, a king named Gilgamesh was born. The fifth king of the first dynasty, he was son to a divine mother, the goddess Ninsun, and a human father, Lugalbanda. Although most of the accounts of his life we have come from mythological texts, it's very likely that Gilgamesh was an actual historical figure. The myths explain how he restored the divine balance after the great Flood that struck his people. The primary source for his deeds can be found in what's generally perceived as humanity's oldest literary work: The Epic of Gilgamesh. The story describes his personal development as a king and reflects many esoteric beliefs inherent to Sumerian spiritual tradition.
According to that same tradition, Gilgamesh successfully ruled Uruk for 126 years and later became a god in the Underworld, judging the fate of humans after their death. Below is a summary of the epic that describes this esoteric journey in detail and which will be the framework of the subsequent analysis of Gilgamesh's message to humanity.
Becoming Human
Gilgamesh was born two-thirds god and one-third human. This unusual origin was reflected in the early life of his kingship. He was an arrogant, ruthless and violent tyrant that agitated his people by forcing young brides to sleep with him before they were allowed to be with their husbands. His bravado knew no limits. The citizens of Uruk finally had enough and called the gods for help. Aruru, the god who created mankind, realized that Gilgamesh was suffering from hubris, believing he was a god and lacking respect for himself and his people. In order to force Gilgamesh to understand his human side and accept it, Aruru created the First Man, Enkidu.
Enkidu is Born
Enkidu grew up on the wild steppe and believed himself to be an animal, just like the gazelles he observed around him. Together with his newly found friends he drank from the river each day and lived happily. His solidarity grew stronger and he began to sabotage the traps that the hunter set out to catch the gazelles. The hunter was too afraid to go near the animals when Enkidu was around, so he asked his father for advice. His father told him to visit Gilgamesh. So he did and the king of Uruk told him to lure Enkidu with the harlot called Shamhat.
Shamhat walked up to Enkidu and revealed her sex to him. Enkidu became sexually aroused and made love to Shamhat for six days and seven nights. Slowly he began to realize he was not an animal but a human being. Shamhat exclaimed:
You are beautiful, Enkidu, you are become like a god.
Why do you gallop around the wilderness with the wild beasts?
Come, let me bring you into Uruk-Haven,
to the Holy Temple, the residence of Anu and Ishtar,
the place of Gilgamesh, who is wise to perfection,
but who struts his power over the people like a wild bull. (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet I)
They decided to walk to Uruk and pay the king a visit. In the meantime, Gilgamesh started to have strange dreams that his mother interpreted for him. She predicted that he soon would find himself a new friend, someone to care for and love.
When Enkidu entered the town, he noticed Gilgamesh's deviant behaviour of forcing brides to sleep with him. Furiously he blocked the path to the house where the king would strike next and a wild fight broke out. It ended with the two of them hugging each other, establishing a friendship for life. Enkidu made Gilgamesh realize his mistakes as a king, developing and maturing thanks to his new friend that in effect reflected his human side. Gilgamesh of Uruk was no longer lonely in the pursuit of the understanding of human existence.
Idealistic Rebellion
After some time, Enkidu began to grow tired of city life. Gilgamesh wanted to cheer him up and suggested they set out on an adventure to the cedar forest where the demon Humbaba lived. Enkidu assured him that it would be impossible to defeat him and the elderly warned Gilgamesh of his youthful ignorance, but he laughed at the warnings he received and decided to go through with the plans. He informed his mother Ninsun of his intentions and although she was afraid of the consequences, she accepted the situation and prayed to the gods for help. She also promised to love Enkidu like a son.
The two idealists set out on a journey to the cedar forest. On their way Gilgamesh received several visions during sleep that Enkidu interpreted as positive signs of future victory. When they approached the cedar mountain where Humbaba was residing, Enkidu became afraid but was eagerly motivated by his brave companion:
Let your voice bellow forth like the kettledrum, let the stiffness in your arms depart, let the paralysis in your legs go away.
Take my hand, my friend, we will go on together.
Your heart should burn to do battle
--pay no heed to death, do not lose heart!
The one who watches from the side is a careful man,
but the one who walks in front protects himself and saves his comrade,
and through their fighting they establish fame (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet IV)
Together they entered the mountain and faced the wrath of Humbaba. With the help of Shamash, the god of sun and justice, they weakened the demon and blew mighty storms that finally overpowered him. Gilgamesh was about to spare his life but Enkidu talked him into killing him. Afterwards Enkidu began to cut down cedar trees and created a city gate out of them. They placed it on a raft and set in their journey back home.
Ishtar's Rage
While home, Gilgamesh washed and let his hair fall down across his shoulders. Ishtar, the goddess of love and war, embraced his beauty and proposed marriage. Gilgamesh declined the request, noting the many men who had been lovers to Ishtar and ended up in miserable situations. Ishtar became furious and demanded that Anu, God of Heaven, released the Bull of Heaven to kill Gilgamesh. Anu refused to do this and said that Gilgamesh had only spoken the truth. Ishtar then threatened to open the gates to the Underworld and let the dead walk the earth and feast on the living.
Anu finally had to give in to Isthar's demands and gave her the Bull of Heaven. What followed was a disaster; hundreds of people fell down into the cracks of the earth that were created when the bull snorted. Gilgamesh and Enkidu managed to kill the monster together and teased Ishtar by throwing the shoulder blade of the corpse in her face. Afterwards the two heroes walked through the streets of Uruk and were admired by all the citizens. They had a great party and enjoyed a life of fame and glory. That same night, Enkidu started to have bad dreams.
The Death of Enkidu
Enkidu dreamt of the gods discussing the death of Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven. Because of these events, one of them had to die. While Shamash defended Enkidu and claimed he was innocent, the gods decided to sentence Enkidu to death. At first, he refused to accept his fate and cursed Shamhat for leading him into the role of the human. Shamash explained to Enkidu that he should be grateful for what Shamhat had done to him and told him not to reject his fate. Gilgamesh would arrange a great funeral for his friend and dress himself in lion's skin, wandering the wilderness with the sadness of losing Enkidu.
He told Gilgamesh of a dream he had, where a mystical creature with paws of a lion and claws of an eagle, had struck him to the ground and taken him to the Underworld. There was nothing Gilgamesh could do. When he heard Enkidu's heart make the last beat, he screamed out in pain and arranged a great funeral for him, just as the dreams had explained. The fate of man made the king anxious; what future awaited him now?
Spiritual Awakening
I am going to die!--am I not like Enkidu?!
Deep sadness penetrates my core,
I fear death, and now roam the wilderness (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet IX)
Facing Immortality
Gilgamesh dressed out in lion's skin and began roaming the wilderness, confused and split about his mortality. He decided to travel to Utnapishtim, a god that possibly could help him become immortal. After a long journey he reached Mount Mashu, guarded by mystical scorpion creatures that could kill with the look in their eyes. Gilgamesh explained to them who he was and his purpose of meeting with Utnapishtim. The creatures let him through and Gilgamesh walked for 24 hours in a coal black tunnel in the mountain. On the other side he reached a magnificent garden of jewels.
He travelled onward and came to the tavern-keeper Siduri, who was hiding behind veils. At first she confused him for a burglar but in time understood that it was Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk. He requested the way to Utnapishtim. Siduri didn't want to explain how to get there, pointing out that no one except Shamash was able to cross the Waters of Death and meet Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh insisted and she then finally pointed to Urshanabi, the Faraway who'd take the king across the deadly ocean.
While ashore, he met Utnapishtim, who listened to his sorrows over Enkidu's death and the will to achieve immortality. Utnapishtim explained to Gilgamesh the harsh truth of human existence:
No one can see death,
no one can see the face of death,
no one can hear the voice of death,
yet there is savage death that snaps off mankind.
For how long do we build a household?
For how long do we seal a document!
For how long do brothers share the inheritance?
For how long is there to be jealousy in the land!
For how long has the river risen and brought the overflowing waters,
so that dragonflies drift down the river! (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet X)
The message was brutal but honest: Gilgamesh could not escape death but had to face his fate and stop worrying about the perishing world in constant change. The great gods had commanded that death was an essential part of life.
The Great Flood
Utnapishtim shared a secret myth with Gilgamesh. He told him the story of the great Flood. Mankind had begun to overpopulate the earth and the gods decided to create a flood that would exterminate the human race. All gods were in agreement, except Ea, the god of wisdom, that secretly told Utnapishtim to create a boat and save his family from destruction. So he did and when the great Flood came, Utnapishtim and his family hid inside the boat. After the Flood, the boat was stranded on Mount Nisir and Utnapishtim sacrificed to the gods in praise of life.
The gods were furious that someone had survived the Flood but had to accept the situation. In turn, they forced Ea to introduce death to mankind; no man would ever live for eternity again. At the same time they decided to make Utnapishtim an immortal god and from that day he'd reside far away by the Mouth of the Rivers. Gilgamesh understood that the search for immortality was in vein and despaired. However, Utnapishtim promised him that he'd be granted immortality if he managed to stay awake for six days and seven nights.
Divine Transcendence
When Gilgamesh woke up a week later, he realized he'd neglected his chance. Urshanabi performed a ritual of purification for him. Before Gilgamesh left, Utnapishtim gave him a shining robe, while his wife urged him to provide him with a gift, so that he could return to Uruk again with honour. Utnapishtim revealed another secret to Gilgamesh: at the bottom of Apsu, the Ocean of Wisdom, laid the Plant of Life that would make him young again. Gilgamesh managed to dive into Apsu and capture the plant but was very cautious and afraid to try it out himself, so he decided to let someone else taste of it first when he'd reached Uruk.
On the way to his city, he and Urshanabi took a rest and bathed in the water. While doing so, the Lion of the Ground (a snake) smelled the fragrance of the Plant of Life and stole it.
Counsel me, O ferryman Urshanabi!
For whom have my arms labored, Urshanabi!
For whom has my heart's blood roiled!
I have not secured any good deed for myself,
but done a good deed for the 'lion of the ground'!(The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet XI)
Gilgamesh didn't know what to do; he'd now twice missed once-in-a-lifetime opportunities to become immortal. When the two travellers returned to the city, Gilgamesh observed Uruk in a new way. Full of pride and honour, he showed Urshanabi the great wall he'd built and the beauty of the town. He'd finally found inner peace, a happiness that had been at the same place all along. Here the amazing journey of Gilgamesh ended.
Gilgamesh: A CORRUPT Perspective
Through the life of Gilgamesh we follow the gradual development of a man who learns to accept his fate as human and overcome his weaknesses. He starts out as an arrogant and tyrannical king, certain that his quasi-divine origin means he's unstoppable, immortal and godlike. Gilgamesh suffers from hubris; the belief that his power and importance are equal to that of the gods and the cosmic order.
Enkidu, the First Man, is born as a reflection of the human third of Gilgamesh to help him realize his fate. Together they set out to kill Humbaba, a demon that esoterically can be seen as a mental barrier between man and wisdom; between Gilgamesh and the cedar trees. Another challenge is the temptation of Ishtar, a goddess known to lure her lovers into self-destruction. Gilgamesh contrasts this false hedonism against the loyalty and respect of true marriage, provoking Ishtar to send down the Bull of Heaven to destroy him. Together with Enkidu, he manages to slay the bull and offend Ishtar even further. Two human heroes have prevented the destructive powers of the gods. Happy and cheerful, Gilgamesh and Enkidu believe their heroic deeds have granted them a position of fame and glory.
Who, my Friend, can ascend to the heavens!
Only the gods can dwell forever with Shamash.
As for human beings, their days are numbered,
and whatever they keep trying to achieve is but wind! (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet II)
But the fun doesn't last for very long; the gods decide Gilgamesh's hubris has gone too far and condemn Enkidu to death. Gilgamesh mourns the loss of his best friend, knowing it's a reflection of himself and his fate as a human. Pain shatters the soul of the king of Uruk: only death is real. Dressed in lion's skin, marking the power of earth over his existential freedom, he wanders into the wilderness. To combat the fear of death, Gilgamesh decides he wants to pursue immortality.
Reaching Mount Mashu, strange scorpion creatures guard the entrance to the spiritual dimension that Gilgamesh wishes to enter. Because of his divine origin he's allowed to pass and walk through the dark tunnel inside the mountain. On the way to wisdom, man is lured by secret temptations that reveal themselves potentially dangerous and life threatening. Siduri is such a temptation, standing in the way for Gilgamesh to cross the Waters of Death and reach spiritual guidance. She stalls his journey and if he doesn't manage to break free, he will lose time in a world that isn't real.
He continues his journey together with Urshanabi, marking the time when Gilgamesh enters the Ideal world of knowledge and wisdom, connected to but distinct from the ordinary Material world. The Ideal world is the place where Gilgamesh meditates over existence and challenges his own powers. To reach this state he has to connect his mind with a vision beyond death and material transience.
Utnapishtim affirms the human fate created by the gods: no one can escape death, not even Gilgamesh. His story of the great Flood is both a metaphor that explains why humans should not strive for material possessions but love and embrace existence as it is, as well as a hint that immortality is a divine gift only given to those who transcend the mundane life of most people. Gilgamesh, motivated by fear, hubris and search for fame, does not qualify because he denies the cosmic order and is therefore incomplete, as reflected by the fact that he's one-third human.
O man of Shuruppak, son of Ubartutu:
Tear down the house and build a boat!
Abandon wealth and seek living beings!
Spurn possessions and keep alive living beings! (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet XI)
What follow are two tests that prove Gilgamesh isn't ready yet to become a god. He fails to stay awake for six days and seven nights, a humorous situation showing man sleeping while the chance of immortality passes him by. Gilgamesh is equally ignorant when he takes a quiet bath before entering Uruk, too afraid to taste the Plant of Life himself before letting someone else try it out. Not surprisingly, that chance passes as well when the Lion of the Ground steals it and disappears. The lion here is a symbol of the earth and its temptations to steal our attention away from the idealistic, spiritual and divine.
But despite his failed attempts to become immortal, Gilgamesh returns to his city of Uruk with a renewed passion for life. He has now learned to value the things that truly matter: culture and civilization, the latter represented by the great wall he's built for his people. This is where the essential wisdom of Gilgamesh unfolds itself for us: there is no point in denying our mortality. We must learn to accept it and move on - and once we do, we have the paradoxical chance of immortalizing ourselves through culture and heroic deeds. Our memory lives on within the world of constant change.
And indeed, Gilgamesh actually became a god after his death. He was the judge of the Underworld, deciding the fate of each individual depending on what kind of life they'd lived. Good men with many children lived a good life in the Underworld; lonely and childless men were forced to eat crumbles on the floor. This metaphor explains why the mortal life has an impact on the life beyond; what we do here and now determines the future of mankind. Our ideas, actions and choices are interconnected with the world as a whole.
In Sumerian tradition the divine king was often depicted together with a tree. This was the Tree of Life, symbolizing the divine balance of the world. The tree was often believed to be rooted in Apsu and reach all the way up to heaven, thus establishing a connection between life on earth and the world of gods. The king was the protector of this balance. If he was a successful king, he himself became a symbol of this tree, ruling his people with godlike wisdom and love. Gilgamesh was such a king and immortalized himself by restoring this cosmic order after the great Flood. Like Utnapishtim, he was the saviour and protector of Life.
You gods, as surely as I shall not forget this lapis lazuli around my neck,
may I be mindful of these days, and never forget them!
The gods may come to the incense offering,
but Enlil may not come to the incense offering,
because without considering he brought about the Flood
and consigned my people to annihilation. (The Epic of Gilgamesh, Tablet XI, Belet-ili, Ishtar as the mother goddess, after the Flood)
Gilgamesh dived into Apsu to observe the wisdom of existence. The Sumerians believed that Apsu contained all the archetypes and forms of the world, similar to the World of Forms that Plato spoke of. But instead of being an inaccessible, external world to ours, this Platonic sphere was an intrinsic part of ours, however only accessible by the kings and gods. By submerging with Absu, Gilgamesh studied the ideas and forms behind the material world and faced the essence of existence. He returned with this wisdom to Uruk and ruled it under the protection of the gods, loved and celebrated by his people as the greatest king that had ever lived. To become that immortal figure, he had to go through all the suffering and pain of being human, an experience without which he'd still be incomplete.
The development of Gilgamesh is the development of man: the animalistic, the human and the divine. A similar idea is expressed by Plato: human development is a process starting with the hedonistic, followed by the practical, ending with the philosophical stage, at which point we're ready to grasp the knowledge of the Forms. According to the Sumerians, these Forms were ever present in the material world; nothing could exist without an archetype or concept located in Apsu. These archetypes form the design or structure behind our reality. To understand the world we should not pursue matter but form; not expression of the ideas but the ideas themselves.
Aside from the philosophical aspect to the life and wisdom of Gilgamesh, what does he communicate concerning human life? What can we learn from Gilgamesh? Essentially, the king of Uruk defended a typically Indo-European view of life. We should not be afraid of death but respect it and learn to accept it as a part of existence. Love and friendship are important for us to grow as human individuals. So is sex but any physical pleasure or temptation must always be contextualized to attain meaning; sex for its own sake is useless and empty. Family, culture and civilization are foundational aspects of human life and good people strive to preserve and create these things during their lifetime, leaving behind a legacy for the next generations to come.
Gilgamesh wants us to live a life of self-reflection, kindness, generosity and moderation. While fame and glory exist, they are hard to achieve and most people will find themselves chasing something they'll never grasp or understand. Idealism is important but every heroic deed requires a personal sacrifice and the sorrow of losing something or someone we love is a tragedy we ultimately have to face alone. Gilgamesh's spiritual development also hints at the fact that immortality is real but that not all people are granted access to this state of being and is therefore generally not desirable. Regardless of a possible divine existence, all people must first die and reach the Underworld. No one, not even gods, escapes death.
The message of The Epic of Gilgamesh urges us to discover the truth about human existence by taking part of the same process that Gilgamesh once did. It's an uncompromising love of human life and the world in which it exists, including all the horrors of pain, suffering, destruction and death. Essentially and most importantly, it teaches us how to see things in life for what they are - an experience - and accept them as something ultimately good and beautiful. Amor fati - love your fate and embrace destiny.